Faith

Alpha had an immigrant's soul.

 

That's the best way I can describe him to you, who have known him all his life. Alpha was quick to accept blame, easily persuaded by those who are merely sure of themselves, and deeply fearful of authority. None of these things rendered him unfit to be a friend, but they did necessitate a certain awareness of his predicament which I was unaccustomed to assuming.

 

You have asked me to tell you his story, but I only know the end of it. You are much more conversant with the details of his life. Which is as it should be, of course. In truth, I can be a witness only to his death. If this is what you wish. I am here to offer it to you, with the understanding that his story comes filtered through my mind, now much changed by the upheaval he has wrought on our world.

 

Pardon me for my impertinence. I do not wish to impugn or malign anyone on this committee. I appreciate your considerable hospitality towards me and my family. How are they, by the way?

 

I see. As I am sure you are aware, I have not seen them in several days.

 

Yes, I understand your situation. It is simply that the people of my world often crave proximity with their mates and offspring.

 

Yes, even after the eradication of our religions. Perhaps, in point of fact, even more so.

 

No, I do not require any food or drink at this time.

 

No, just to know that they are safe. Can you do this for me?

 

Very well. I suppose I will have to be content with your assurances for now. Tell me, does the committee have any understanding of the concept of justice or fair play?

 

I see. Yes, there are certain "modes of thought" as you put it, to which me and my kind are especially prone, too. Do you wish to eradicate all of those as well?

 

Yes, I know you have said often that it was all an accident. And why should I believe you?

 

Well, these documents certainly support your case, but they could be forged.

 

No, frankly, I have no reason to believe you. I have every reason to distrust you.

 

Alpha has nothing to do with our time here. He was a friend, it is true, but he was also responsible for a particularly destructive episode in the history of our world.

 

Yes, I grant you, it was probably an accident, as has already been stated. Nevertheless, the committee has asked me to speak. You want my story. Will you now listen to it?

 

I called him Alpha because I could not pronounce his name. He arrived at my door dressed in brown. Yes, disguised as a UPS delivery person. A joke on your parts? I was not amused at the time since I was not expecting a package on that particular day. He wanted to talk to me. Which was odd. He said his name was--well, I already told you I couldn't pronounce it. I said "Alpha? Did you say your name was Alpha?" He nodded and that worked for us. Of course, later, I would understand this name as something entirely different from what I thought of it at the time. Alpha did have a package for me. I was wary, but he handed me the package and then he stepped inside. Right around me, into my house. I was so shocked by this clear violation of societal protocol that my defensive instincts were momentarily disabled and I did not stop him. He turned to me and said he was the emissary from a foreign world. He had chosen my house as his base of operations and he hoped I would not mind. I suppose I thought it was all a joke of some kind. "Very funny," I said. "Ha ha." Then he did a peculiar thing. He looked around at the pictures on my wall and said that he and his people were prepared to help us. I didn't know what he meant by "help." Or by "us." Me and my family? The world? By this time I had recovered my composure and I inflated myself to my full stature and told him in no uncertain terms that he was to leave. Immediately. He just laughed and sat on the couch. The package he had delivered felt awkward in my hands. I looked at the return address. I did not recognize it and I am sure the color drained from my cheeks. I was now faced with an unknown package and an odd stranger in my house who was not inclined to leave. And may I say here to the committee that there must be better ways to conduct a first contact.

 

You're looking into it? I'm glad to hear it. So, anyway, I went to the phone with the intention of calling the police. Alpha held up his hand. The very peculiar thing about him was that he was timid as a person, yet, on a one-to-one basis, he was very much in charge. I put down the phone receiver. He told me the package I held in my hand would eliminate a scourge on this planet. It contained a virus that would infect people's brains and relieve them of the disease of religion or religious thoughts. He explained how the impulse to believe and religious matters was an artifact of our silly brains. Now this was news to me. I was not a religious person. Neither was my family. I told him so. He laughed and told me that of course I was religious. All of our people were religious. All I had to do was open this box, take out the vial, unscrew the top, and the virus inside it would spread around the world and cure us all of this disease of religious thought. I thought he was crazy and I told him so.

 

Pardon me?

 

Ah. Crazy. Insane. Not right in the head. It's--how can I describe this?--it's like he had a screw loose. He was defective mentally.

 

You're welcome. To continue. Alpha seemed curiously hurt by my comment. I found I was, against my will, feeling sorry for him. He remained in my house for the rest of the day. When my children and wife returned home that afternoon, my children from school, my wife from work, Alpha was still there. They liked him right away. In a peculiar way, so did I. I told them he was staying for dinner. He did. We all got along very well. The package was in a corner, waiting. I did not know what to do with it. Alpha moved in. We had a spare room in the basement. Did you all know this from the beginning?

 

I thought so. I had faith. Please excuse the expression.

 

Yes, I was trying to be funny.

 

Fine. I will reign in my natural tendency towards mirth. Now here you should know that I had no idea this was a test. I had no way of understanding that I was chosen to make a decision for the rest of humanity. The great wash of humanity, as it were, who have always been enamored of otherness. Our minds partake of other dimensions. Is that what it is? No religious inclinations for me, exactly, but there was the thought that something existed beyond me. Sure, that was normal. Brains are made that way, aren't they? And that is what you were trying to eradicate. Very well. But you would not do it. You had scruples. You wanted one of us to unleash it all.

 

Pardon me? You are saying my wife is telling her story as well. That should be interesting. To another committee?

 

I see. And the point of all this testimony and information gathering?

 

Oh. Well. You're saying secrets of this magnitude must be kept from me.

 

No I do not approve. You take many liberties with me and my kind.

 

I see.

 

Fine.

 

Very well, I will go on. Alpha was a wonderful boarder. Quiet, polite, interesting. We thought his insistence that he was an alien was simply a charming eccentricity. The package he had brought that first day collected dust in a corner of my office. Periodically I would pick it up, shake it a little, then put it back. Away. It scared me more than a little. Did I tell you we had a dog? Mac. Yes. Alpha loved Mac. They got along very well. Mac was a terrific dog and very well behaved. But one day she pissed on the package. No reason that I could determine. It was very odd behavior for Mac. Once that happened, I could not simply keep the package. I opened it. Inside was packing material and a glass vial, exactly as Alpha had stated. I put the box and packing material, stained with Mac's urine, into a plastic garbage bag while Mac looked on with interest.

 

Yes, that's right, I said with interest.

 

No, I couldn't explain it. I can't explain it to this day.

 

Then I was left holding the vial. It was not much bigger than a medicine bottle. The liquid inside was pink and viscous. You know, I will say to the committee right here and now that faith is a peculiar thing. I had come to trust Alpha, and reasoned that he would not have brought something into my house that could harm me or anyone else.

 

Nevertheless, that is what I thought at the time.

 

Well, yes, we are a peculiar people. Most biological beings are. Haven't you noticed? For example, the members of the committee.

 

Oh. That hurt did it? A little too close to home.

 

Fine.

 

Yes, I opened the vial. As I was about to tell you.

 

Yes.

 

I am only too happy to go on if the members of the committee would please stop interrupting me.

 

Thank you. I opened the vial and held it to the air. The liquid began to evaporate immediately and before long the vial was empty. The room was suffused with a kind of faint glow. And an odor as of spring blossoms. It was all very intoxicating. And frightening. I began to feel in my soul a fright I could not quell. I feared for the entire world and my first impulse was to find my wife. I ran to the bedroom where she was asleep and told her I had done a terrible thing. She was confused. My only relief was to hold her. My only comfort was her skin on mine. Alpha entered the room at that moment and said only one syllable, a long, extended short A.

 

Obviously, he knew what I would eventually do. You all did.

 

The committee is being unfair. We lost the impulse to faith, but we found each other. And now you want more from us. What is it? Why are we here?

 

Why no answer to my questions?

 

My daughters? Yes, I would like to see them, as I have told you. Where are they? Where are they?

 

Lori? Crystal?

 

Yes, I see them. Will the committee release me now? I have told you everything I know.

 

Well, I suppose you're right. I haven't told you quite everything.

 

Yes, yes, you want to know about Alpha's death.

 

Very well. When I saw him draw close, my faith in him was destroyed. I saw him as the peculiar and dangerous intruder I now believe he was all along.

 

Yes, it was my gun, by the bed, in the table. I had trained myself to protect my family. I had been to the firing range. I had taken safety courses. I am unable to say exactly why my hand went to the security of that weapon at that moment, but the result is that Alpha lay bleeding on my hall carpet. Perhaps it had something to do with the vial, with the death of religion.

 

I know I saw I didn't have any religion, but something made me want to kill Alpha, didn't it?

 

Again, no answer to my question. You ask everything of me, and give me nothing in return.

 

I can tell you more details if that is what you want, but I am conscious that the committee regarded Alpha as a friend. I am aware that you, like us, are made of living matter. You feel. You have lost faith exactly as we have. You don't need this.

 

I don't want to trouble you with the sordid detail of his final minutes.

 

Of course we did not eat him.

 

Of course we did not feed him to the dog.

 

I don't know where he went. Truly, it is beyond my understanding. He simply--disappeared.

 

Yes, I see the document.

 

Yes, I am studying it.

 

So, you suggest that he turned into an angel, is that it?

 

Well, perhaps. How could I possibly know that? You took away whatever faith I might have harbored, remember?

 

Oh. We are finished then?

 

I'm glad to hear it.

 

My wife. Yes I see her. I see my family. Will you now release me to them? Will you now find other worlds to torment? Will you allow me the comfort of my kind?

Microbiology

Microbiology (from Greek μῑκρος, mīkros, "small"; βίος, bios, "life"; and -λογία, -logia) is the study of microorganisms, which are unicellular or cell-cluster microscopic organisms. This includes eukaryotes such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes. Viruses and prions, though not strictly classed as living organisms, are also studied. In short; microbiology refers to the study of life and organisms that are too small to be seen with the naked eye. Microbiology typically includes the study of the immune system, or Immunology. Generally, immune systems interact with pathogenic microbes; these two disciplines often intersect which is why many colleges offer a paired degree such as "Microbiology and Immunology".

Microbiology is a broad term which includes virology, mycology, parasitology, bacteriology and other branches. A microbiologist is a specialist in microbiology and these other topics.

Microbiology is researched actively, and the field is advancing continually. It is estimated only about one percent of all of the microbe species on Earth have been studied. Although microbes were directly observed over three hundred years ago, the field of microbiology can be said to be in its infancy relative to older biological disciplines such as zoology and botany.

History

Ancient

The existence of microorganisms was hypothesized for many centuries before their actual discovery. The existence of unseen microbiological life was postulated by Jainism which is based on Mahavira’s teachings as early as 6th century BCE.. Paul Dundas notes that Mahavira asserted existence of unseen microbiological creatures living in earth, water, air and fire. Jain scriptures also describe nigodas which are sub-microscopic creatures living in large clusters and having a very short life and are said to pervade each and every part of the universe, even in tissues of plants and flesh of animals. The Roman Marcus Terentius Varro made references to microbes when he warned against locating a homestead in the vicinity of swamps "because there are bred certain minute creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes, which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and there cause serious diseases."

In 1546 Girolamo Fracastoro proposed that epidemic diseases were caused by transferable seedlike entities that could transmit infection by direct or indirect contact, or even without contact over long distances.

However, early claims about the existence of microorganisms were speculative, and not based on any data or observation. Actual observation and discovery of microbes had to await the invention of the microscope in the 17th century.

Modern

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, was considered to be the first to observe microorganisms using a microscope.

in 1676, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek observed bacteria and other microorganisms, using a single-lens microscope of his own design. While Van Leeuwenhoek is often cited as the first to observe microbes, Robert Hooke made the first recorded microscopic observation, of the fruiting bodies of molds, in 1665.. The first observation of microbes using a microscope is generally credited to the Dutch draper and haberdasher, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, who lived for most of his life in Delft, Holland. It has, however, been suggested that a Jesuit priest called Athanasius Kircher was the first to observe microorganisms . He was among the first to design magic lanterns for projection purposes, so he must have been well acquainted with the properties of lenses . One of his book contains a chapter in Latin, which reads in translation – ‘Concerning the wonderful structure of things in nature, investigated by Microscope. Here, he wrote ‘who would believe that vinegar and milk abound with an innumerable multitude of worms.’ He also noted that putrid material is full of innumerable creeping animalculae. These observations antedate Robert Hooke’s Micrographia by nearly 20 years and were published some 29 years before van Leeuwenhoek saw protozoa and 37 years before he described having seen bacteria .

The field of bacteriology (later a subdiscipline of microbiology) was founded in the 19th century by Ferdinand Cohn, a botanist whose studies on algae and photosynthetic bacteria led him to describe several bacteria including Bacillus and Beggiatoa. Cohn was also the first to formulate a scheme for the taxonomic classification of bacteria and discover spores. Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch were contemporaries of Cohn’s and are often considered to be the father of Microbiology  and medical microbiology, respectively.theory of spontaneous generation, thereby solidifying microbiology’s identity as a biological science. Pasteur also designed methods for food preservation (pasteurization) and vaccines against several diseases such as anthrax, fowl cholera and rabies. Koch is best known for his contributions to the germ theory of disease, proving that specific diseases were caused by specific pathogenic microorganisms. He developed a series of criteria that have become known as the Koch's postulates. Koch was one of the first scientists to focus on the isolation of bacteria in pure culture resulting in his description of several novel bacteria including Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis. Pasteur is most famous for his series of experiments designed to disprove the then widely held

While Pasteur and Koch are often considered the founders of microbiology, their work did not accurately reflect the true diversity of the microbial world because of their exclusive focus on microorganisms having direct medical relevance. It was not until the late 19th century and the work of Martinus Beijerinck and Sergei Winogradsky, the founders of general microbiology (an older term encompassing aspects of microbial physiology, diversity and ecology), that the true breadth of microbiology was revealed. Beijerinck made two major contributions to microbiology: the discovery of viruses and the development of enrichment culture While his work on the Tobacco Mosaic Virus established the basic principles of virology, it was his development of enrichment culturing that had the most immediate impact on microbiology by allowing for the cultivation of a wide range of microbes with wildly different physiologies. Winogradsky was the first to develop the concept of chemolithotrophy and to thereby reveal the essential role played by microorganisms in geochemical processes. He was responsible for the first isolation and description of both nitrifying and nitrogen-fixing bacteria. techniques.

Fields

The field of microbiology can be generally divided into several subdisciplines:

• Microbial physiology: The study of how the microbial cell functions biochemically. Includes the study of microbial growth, microbial metabolism and microbial cell structure.
• Microbial genetics: The study of how genes are organized and regulated in microbes in relation to their cellular functions. Closely related to the field of molecular biology.
• Cellular microbiology: A discipline bridging microbiology and cell biology.
• Medical microbiology: The study of the pathogenic microbes and the role of microbes in human illness. Includes the study of microbial pathogenesis and epidemiology and is related to the study of disease pathology and immunology.
• Veterinary microbiology: The study of the role in microbes in veterinary medicine or animal taxonomy.
• Environmental microbiology: The study of the function and diversity of microbes in their natural environments. Includes the study of microbial ecology, microbially-mediated nutrient cycling, geomicrobiology, microbial diversity and bioremediation. Characterization of key bacterial habitats such as the rhizosphere and phyllosphere, soil and groundwater ecosystems, open oceans or extreme environments (extremophiles).
• Evolutionary microbiology: The study of the evolution of microbes. Includes the study of bacterial systematics and taxonomy.
• Industrial microbiology: The exploitation of microbes for use in industrial processes. Examples include industrial fermentation and wastewater treatment. Closely linked to the biotechnology industry. This field also includes brewing, an important application of microbiology.
• Aeromicrobiology: The study of airborne microorganisms.
• Food microbiology: The study of microorganisms causing food spoilage and foodborne illness. Using microorganisms to produce foods, for example by fermentation.
• Pharmaceutical microbiology: the study of microorganisms causing pharmaceutical contamination and spoil
• Agricultural microbiology: The study of agriculturaly important microorganisms.

(Jobs with the Center For Disease Control and Prevention requires a degree in microbiology for most positions)

• Soil Microbiology: The study of those microorganisms that are found in soil.
• Water microbiology: The study of those microorganisms that are found in water.
• Generation microbiology: The study of those microorganisms that have the same characters as their parents.
• Nano microbiology: The study of those microorganisms at nano level.

Marine biology

Marine biology is the scientific study of organisms in the ocean or other marine or brackish bodies of water. Given that in biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land, marine biology classifies species based on the environment rather than on taxonomy. Marine biology differs from marine ecology as marine ecology is focused on how organisms interact with each other and the environment, and biology is the study of the organisms themselves.

Marine life is a vast resource, providing food, medicine, and raw materials, in addition to helping to support recreation and tourism all over the world. At a fundamental level, marine life helps determine the very nature of our planet. Marine organisms contribute significantly to the oxygen cycle, and are involved in the regulation of the Earth's climate. Shorelines are in part shaped and protected by marine life, and some marine organisms even help create new land.

Marine biology covers a great deal, from the microscopic, including most zooplankton and phytoplankton to the huge cetaceans (whales) which reach up to a reported 48 meters (125 feet) in length.

The habitats studied by marine biology include everything from the tiny layers of surface water in which organisms and abiotic items may be trapped in surface tension between the ocean and atmosphere, to the depths of the oceanic trenches, sometimes 10,000 meters or more beneath the surface of the ocean. It studies habitats such as coral reefs, kelp forests, tidepools, muddy, sandy and rocky bottoms, and the open ocean (pelagic) zone, where solid objects are rare and the surface of the water is the only visible boundary.

A large amount of all life on Earth exists in the oceans. Exactly how large the proportion is unknown, since many ocean species are still to be discovered. While the oceans comprise about 71% of the Earth's surface, due to their depth they encompass about 300 times the habitable volume of the terrestrial habitats on Earth.

Many species are economically important to humans, including food fish. It is also becoming understood that the well-being of marine organisms and other organisms are linked in very fundamental ways. The human body of knowledge regarding the relationship between life in the sea and important cycles is rapidly growing, with new discoveries being made nearly every day. These cycles include those of matter (such as the carbon cycle) and of air (such as Earth's respiration, and movement of energy through ecosystems including the ocean). Large areas beneath the ocean surface still remain effectively unexplored.

Subfields

The marine ecosystem is large, and thus there are many subfields of marine biology. Most involve studying specializations of particular animal groups, such as phycology, invertebrate zoology and ichthyology.

Other subfields study the physical effects of continual immersion in sea water and the ocean in general, adaptation to a salty environment, and the effects of changing various oceanic properties on marine life. A subfield of marine biology studies the relationships between oceans and ocean life, and global warming and environmental issues (such as carbon dioxide displacement).

Recent marine biotechnology has focused largely on marine biomolecules, especially proteins, that may have uses in medicine or engineering. Marine environments are the home to many exotic biological materials that may inspire biomimetic materials.

Related fields

Marine biology is a branch of oceanography and is closely linked to biology. It also encompasses many ideas from ecology. Fisheries science and marine conservation can be considered partial offshoots of marine biology (as well as environmental studies).

Lifeforms

Microscopic life

A copepod.

Microscopic life undersea is incredibly diverse and still poorly understood. For example, the role of viruses in marine ecosystems is barely being explored even in the beginning of the 21st century.

The role of phytoplankton is better understood due to their critical position as the most numerous primary producers on Earth. Phytoplankton are categorized into cyanobacteria (also called blue-green algae/bacteria), various types of algae (red, green, brown, and yellow-green), diatoms, dinoflagellates, euglenoids, coccolithophorids, cryptomonads, chrysophytes, chlorophytes, prasinophytes, and silicoflagellates.

Zooplankton tend to be somewhat larger, and not all are microscopic. Many Protozoa are zooplankton, including dinoflagellates, zooflagellates, foraminiferans, and radiolarians. Some of these (such as dinoflagellates) are also phytoplankton; the distinction between plants and animals often breaks down in very small organisms. Other zooplankton include cnidarians, ctenophores, chaetognaths, molluscs, arthropods, urochordates, and annelids such as polychaetes. Many larger animals begin their life as zooplankton before they become large enough to take their familiar forms. Two examples are fish larvae and sea stars (also called starfish).

Plants and algae

Plant life is widespread and very diverse under the sea. Microscopic photosynthetic algae contribute a larger proportion of the worlds photosynthetic output than all the terrestrial forests combined. Most of the nichealgae in the ocean, such as Sargassumkelp, which are commonly known as seaweeds that create kelp forests. The non algae plants that survive in the sea are often found in shallow waters, such as the seagrasses (examples of which are eelgrass, Zostera, and turtle grass, Thalassia). These plants have adapted to the high salinity of the ocean environment. The intertidal zone is also a good place to find plant life in the sea, where mangroves or cordgrass or beach grass occupied by sub plants on land is actually occupied by macroscopic and might grow. Microscopic algae and plants provide important habitats for life, sometimes acting as hiding and foraging places for larval forms of larger fish and invertebrates.

A crown-of-thorns starfish.

Marine invertebrates

As on land, invertebrates make up a huge portion of all life in the sea. Invertebrate sea life includes Cnidariajellyfish and sea anemones; Ctenophora; sea worms including the phyla Platyhelminthes, Nemertea, Annelida, Sipuncula, Echiura, Chaetognatha, and Phoronida; Mollusca including shellfish, squid, octopus; Arthropoda including Chelicerata and Crustacea; Porifera; Bryozoa; Echinodermata including starfish; and Urochordata including sea squirts or tunicates. such as

Fish

Fish have evolved very different biological functions from other large organisms. Fish anatomy includes a two-chambered heart, operculum, swim bladder, scales, fins, lips, eyes and secretory cells that produce mucous. Fish breathe by extracting oxygen from water through their gills. Fins propel and stabilize the fish in the water.

Well known fish include: sardines, anchovy, ling cod, clownfish (also known as anemonefish), and bottom fishhalibut or ling cod. Predators include sharks and barracuda. which include

Green turtle.

Reptiles

Reptiles which inhabit or frequent the sea include sea turtles, sea snakes, terrapins, the marine iguana, and the saltwater crocodile. Most extant marine reptiles, except for some sea snakes, are oviparous and need to return to land to lay their eggs. Thus most species, excepting sea turtles, spend most of their lives on or near land rather than in the ocean. Despite their marine adaptations, most sea snakes prefer shallow waters not far from land, around islands, especially waters that are somewhat sheltered, as well as near estuaries. Some extinct marine reptiles, such as ichthyosaurs, evolved to be viviparous and had no requirement to return to land.

Seabirds

Seabirds are species of birds adapted to living in the marine environment, examples including albatross, penguins, gannets, and auks. Although they spend most of their lives in the ocean, species such as gulls can often be found thousands of miles inland.

Sea otters.

Marine mammals

There are five main types of marine mammals.

• Cetaceans include toothed whales (Suborder Odontoceti), such as the Sperm Whale, dolphins, and porpoises such as the Dall's porpoise. Cetaceans also include baleen whales (Suborder Mysticeti), such as the Gray Whale, Humpback Whale, and Blue Whale.
• Sirenians include manatees, the Dugong, and the extinct Steller's Sea Cow.
• Seals (Family Phocidae), sea lions (Family Otariidae - which also include the fur seals), and the WalrusOdobenidae) are all considered pinnipeds. (Family
• The Sea Otter is a member of the Family Mustelidae, which includes weasels and badgers.
• The Polar Bear (Family Ursidae) is sometimes considered a marine mammal because of its dependence on the sea.

Oceanic habitats

Ocean habitats
Corals and reef fish in Papua New Guinea
	Littoral zone
	Intertidal zone
	Estuaries
	Kelp forests
	Coral reefs
	Ocean banks
	Continental shelf
	Neritic zone
	Straits
	Pelagic zone
	Oceanic zone
	Seamounts
	Hydrothermal vents
	Cold seeps
	Demersal zone
	Benthic zone

Reefs

Reefs comprise some of the densest and most diverse habitats in the world. The best-known types of reefs are tropical coral reefs which exist in most tropical waters; however, reefs can also exist in cold water. Reefs are built up by corals and other calcium-depositing animals, usually on top of a rocky outcrop on the ocean floor. Reefs can also grow on other surfaces, which has made it possible to create artificial reefs. Coral reefs also support a huge community of life, including the corals themselves, their symbiotic zooxanthellae, tropical fish and many other organisms.

Much attention in marine biology is focused on coral reefs and the El Niño weather phenomenon. In 1998, coral reefs experienced the most severe mass bleaching events on record, when vast expanses of reefs across the world died because sea surface temperatures rose well above normal. Some reefs are recovering, but scientists say that between 50% and 70% of the world's coral reefs are now endangered and predict that global warming could exacerbate this trend.

Deep sea and trenches

The deepest recorded oceanic trenches measure to date is the Mariana Trench, near the Philippines, in the Pacific Ocean at 10,924 m (35,838 ft). At such depths, water pressure is extreme and there is no sunlight, but some life still exists. A white flatfish, a shrimp and a jellyfish were seen by the American crew of the bathyscaphe Trieste when it dove to the bottom in 1960.

Other notable oceanic trenches include Monterey Canyon, in the eastern Pacific, the Tonga Trench in the southwest at 10,882 m (35,702 ft), the Philippine Trench, the Puerto Rico Trench at 8,605 m (28,232 ft), the Romanche Trench at 7,760 m (24,450 ft), Fram BasinArctic Ocean at 4,665 m (15,305 ft), the Java Trench at 7450 m (24,442 ft), and the South Sandwich Trench at 7,235 m (23,737 ft). in the

In general, the deep sea is considered to start at the aphotic zone, the point where sunlight loses its power of transference through the water.^{[citation needed]} Many life forms that live at these depths have the ability to create their own light a unique evolution known as bio-luminescence.

Marine life also flourishes around seamounts that rise from the depths, where fish and other sea life congregate to spawn and feed. Hydrothermal vents along the mid-ocean ridge spreading centers act as oases, as do their opposites, cold seeps. Such places support unique biomes and many new microbes and other lifeforms have been discovered at these locations .

Open ocean

The open ocean is relatively unproductive because of a lack of nutrients, yet because it is so vast, in total it produces the most primary productivity. Much of the aphotic zone's energy is supplied by the open ocean in the form of detritus. The open ocean consists mostly of jellyfish and its predators such as the mola mola.

Intertidal and shore

Tide pools with sea stars and sea anemone in Santa Cruz, California

Intertidal zones, those areas close to shore, are constantly being exposed and covered by the ocean's tides. A huge array of life lives within this zone.

Shore habitats span from the upper intertidal zones to the area where land vegetation takes prominence. It can be underwater anywhere from daily to very infrequently. Many species here are scavengers, living off of sea life that is washed up on the shore. Many land animals also make much use of the shore and intertidal habitats. A subgroup of organisms in this habitat bores and grinds exposed rock through the process of bioerosion.

Distribution factors

An active research topic in marine biology is to discover and map the life cycles of various species and where they spend their time. Marine biologists study how the ocean currents, tides and many other oceanic factors affect ocean lifeforms, including their growth, distribution and well-being. This has only recently become technically feasible with advances in GPS and newer underwater visual devices.

Most ocean life breeds in specific places, nests or not in others, spends time as juveniles in still others, and in maturity in yet others. Scientists know little about where many species spend different parts of their life cycles. For example, it is still largely unknown where sea turtles and some sharks travel. Tracking devices do not work for some life forms, and the ocean is not friendly to technology. This is important to scientists and fishermen because they are discovering that by restricting commercial fishing in one small area they can have a large impact in maintaining a healthy fish population in a much larger area far away.

Immunology

Immunology is a broad branch of biomedical science that covers the study of all aspects of the immune system in all organisms. It deals with the physiological functioning of the immune system in states of both health and disease; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders (autoimmune diseases, hypersensitivities, immune deficiency, transplant rejection); the physical, chemical and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system in vitro, in situ, and in vivo. Immunology has applications in several disciplines of science, and as such is further divided.

Histological examination of the immune system

Even before the concept of immunity (from immunis, Latin for "exempt") was developed, numerous early physicians characterized organs that would later prove to be part of the immune system. The key primary lymphoid organs of the immune system are like thymus and bone marrow, and secondary lymphatic tissues such as spleen, tonsils, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, adenoids, and skin. When health conditions warrant, immune system organs including the thymus, spleen, portions of bone marrow, lymph nodes and secondary lymphatic tissues can be surgically excised for examination while patients are still alive.

Many components of the immune system are actually cellular in nature and not associated with any specific organ but rather are embedded or circulating in various tissues located throughout the body.

Classical immunology

Classical immunology ties in with the fields of epidemiology and medicine. It studies the relationship between the body systems, pathogens, and immunity. The earliest written mention of immunity can be traced back to the plague of Athens in 430 BCE. Thucydides noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time. Many other ancient societies have references to this phenomenon, but it was not until the 19th and 20th centuries before the concept developed into scientific theory.

The study of the molecular and cellular components that comprise the immune system, including their function and interaction, is the central science of immunology. The immune system has been divided into a more primitive innate immune system, and acquired or adaptive immune system of vertebrates, the latter of which is further divided into humoral and cellular components.

The humoral (antibody) response is defined as the interaction between antibodies and antigens. Antibodies are specific proteins released from a certain class of immune cells (B lymphocytes). Antigens are defined as anything that elicits generation of antibodies, hence they are Antibody Generators. Immunology itself rests on an understanding of the properties of these two biological entities. However, equally important is the cellular response, which can not only kill infected cells in its own right, but is also crucial in controlling the antibody response. Put simply, both systems are highly interdependent.

In the 21st century, immunology has broadened its horizons with much research being performed in the more specialized niches of immunology. This includes the immunological function of cells, organs and systems not normally associated with the immune system, as well as the function of the immune system outside classical models of immunity (Yemeserach 2010).

Clinical immunology

Clinical immunology is the study of diseases caused by disorders of the immune system (failure, aberrant action, and malignant growth of the cellular elements of the system). It also involves diseases of other systems, where immune reactions play a part in the pathology and clinical features.

The diseases caused by disorders of the immune system fall into two broad categories: immunodeficiency, in which parts of the immune system fail to provide an adequate response (examples include chronic granulomatous disease), and autoimmunity, in which the immune system attacks its own host's body (examples include systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, Hashimoto's disease and myasthenia gravis). Other immune system disorders include different hypersensitivities, in which the system responds inappropriately to harmless compounds (asthma and other allergies) or responds too intensely.

The most well-known disease that affects the immune system itself is AIDS, caused by HIV. AIDS is an immunodeficiency characterized by the lack of CD4+ ("helper") T cells and macrophages, which are destroyed by HIV.

Clinical immunologists also study ways to prevent transplant rejection, in which the immune system attempts to destroy allografts or xenografts.

Developmental immunology

The body’s capability to react to antigen depends on a person's age, antigen type, maternal factors and the area where the antigen is presented. Neonates are said to be in a state of physiological immunodeficiency, because both their innate and adaptive immunological responses are greatly suppressed. Once born, a child’s immune system responds favorably to protein antigens while not as well to glycoproteins and polysaccharies. In fact, many of the infections acquired by neonates are caused by low virulence organisms like Staphylococcus and Pseudomonas. In neonates, opsonic activity and the ability to activate the complement cascade is very limited. For example, the mean level of C3 in a newborn is approximately 65% of that found in the adult. Phagocytic activity is also greatly impaired in newborns. This is due to lower opsonic activity, as well as diminished up-regulation of integrin and selectin receptors, which limit the ability of neutrophils to interact with adhesion molecules in the endothelium. Their monocytes are slow and have a reduced ATP production, which also limits the newborns phagocitic activity. Although, the number of total lymphocytes is significantly higher than in adults, the cellular and humoral immunity is also impaired. Antigen presenting cells in newborns have a reduced capability to activate T cells. Also, T cells of a newborn proliferate poorly and produce very small amounts of cytokines like IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-12, and IFN-g which limits their capacity to activate the humoral response as well as the phagocitic activity of macrophage. B cells develop early in gestation but are not fully active.

Monocytes: An Artist's Impression

Maternal factors also play a role in the body’s immune response. At birth most of the immunoglobulin is present is maternal IgG. Because IgM, IgD, IgE and IgA don’t cross the placenta, they are almost undetectable at birth. Although some IgA is provided in breast milk. These passively acquired antibodies can protect the newborn up to 18 months, but their response is usually short-live and of low affinity. These antibodies can also produce a negative response. If a child is exposed to the antibody for a particular antigen before being exposed to the antigen itself then the child will produce a dampened response. Passively acquired maternal antibodies can suppress the antibody response to active immunization. Similarly the response of T-cells to vaccination differs in children compared to adults, and vaccines that induce Th1 responses in adults do not readily elicit these same responses in neonates. By 6-9 months after birth, a child’s immune system begins to respond more strongly to glycoproteins. Not until 12-24 months of age is there a marked improvement in the body’s response to polysaccharides. This can be the reason for the specific time frames found in vaccination schedules.

During adolescence the human body undergoes several physical, physiological and immunological changes. These changes are started and mediated by different hormones. Depending on the sex either testosterone or 17-β-oestradiol, act on male and female bodies accordingly, start acting at ages of 12 and 10 years. There is evidence that these steroids act directly not only on the primary and secondary sexual characteristics, but also have an effect on the development and regulation of the immune system.There is an increased risk in developing autoimmunity for pubescent and post pubescent females and males. There is also some evidence that cell surface receptors on B cells and macrophages may detect sex hormones in the system. The female sex hormone 17-β-oestradiol has been shown to regulate the level of immunological response. Similarly, some male androgens, like testosterone, seem to suppress the stress response to infection; but other androgens like DHEA have the opposite effect, as it increases the immune response instead of down playing it. As in females, the male sex hormones seem to have more control of the immune system during puberty and the time right after than in fully developed adults. Other than hormonal changes physical changes like the involution of the Thymus during puberty will also affect the immunological response of the subject or patient.

Immunotherapy

The use of immune system components to treat a disease or disorder is known as immunotherapy. Immunotherapy is most commonly used in the context of the treatment of cancers together with chemotherapydrugs) and radiotherapy (radiation). However, immunotherapy is also often used in the immunosuppressed (such as HIV patients) and people suffering from other immune deficiencies or autoimmune diseases. (

Diagnostic immunology

The specificity of the bond between antibody and antigen has made it an excellent tool in the detection of substances in a variety of diagnostic techniques. Antibodies specific for a desired antigen can be conjugated with a radiolabel, fluorescent label, or color-forming enzyme and are used as a "probe" to detect it. However, the similarity between some antigens can lead to false positives and other errors in such tests by antibodies cross-reacting with antigens that aren't exact matches.

Evolutionary immunology

Study of the immune system in extant and extinct species is capable of giving us a key understanding of the evolution of species and the immune system.

A development of complexity of the immune system can be seen from simple phagocytotic protection of single celled organisms, to circulating antimicrobial peptides in insects to lymphoid organs in vertebrates. Of course, like much of evolutionary observation, these physical properties are often seen from the anthropocentric aspect. It should be recognized that every organism living today has an immune system absolutely capable of protecting it from most forms of harm; those organisms that did not adapt their immune systems to external threats are no longer around to be observed.

Insects and other arthropods, while not possessing true adaptive immunity, show highly evolved systems of innate immunity, and are additionally protected from external injury (and exposure to pathogens) by their chitinous shells.

Reproductive immunology

This area of the immunology is devoted to the study of immunological aspects of the reproductive process including fetus acceptance. The term has also been used by fertility clinics to address fertility problems, recurrent miscarriages, premature deliveries, and dangerous complications such as pre-clampsia.

Immunologist

Immunologist

Occupation
Type	Profession, Specialty
Activity sectors	Science, Laboratory, Medicine
Description
Education required	Doctor of Philosophy, Medical Doctor
Fields of employment	Hospitals, Clinics, Academia
Related jobs	Physician, Research scientist

According to the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology (AAAAI), "an immunologist is a research scientist who investigates the immune system of vertebrates (including the human immune system). Immunologists include research scientists (Ph.D.) who work in laboratories. Immunologists also include physicians who, for example, treat patients with immune system disorders. Some immunologists are physician-scientists who combine laboratory research with patient care."